Korean Comfort Women Essays -- History Korea Japan War Essays

Comfort women, or ianfu as they are called in Korean, are females who were forced sex slaves for the Japanese Imperial Army (Chunghee). Some of the women were dragged off with physical force as their families wept, while others were actually sold to the army by their destitute families (Watanabe). Still other were officially drafted by the Japanese Imperial Army and believed they would be factory workers or nurses (Hwang in Schellstede 4). Some Korean village leaders were ordered to send young women to participate in "important business for the Imperial Army" (Watanabe). Many Japanese soldiers referred to comfort women as teishintai, which means â€Å"volunteer corps,† so those women who thought they would be working in a factory would not understand what the army really intended to do with them (Kim in Schallstede 25). Jungshindae was the women’s labor corps in which the women would work at a military factory and receive wages. Many women believed this was what th ey would be doing when they were recruited by the army (anonymous in Schellstede 103). The horrific practice of using comfort women for the army carried over from World War II to the Korean War. Many feel that the practice of comfort women lies in discrimination on the part of the Japanese in terms of gender, ethnicity, and race. â€Å"Created through legalized prostitution based on patriarchy, colonialism, and imperialism, the system of comfort women clearly demonstrates that capitalism, sexism, and racism are linked and perpetuated both in the colonial and postcolonial eras† (Watanabe). Estimates as to how many comfort women there were range anywhere from 80,000 to 200,000, and it is believed that approximately 80% of them were Korean. Others came from the Philippi... ...on and a decent apology. As for whether they will receive what they seek, only time and the Japanese government will tell. Works Cited â€Å"Album: Comfort Women History.† 2003. Brown University Korean American Students Association. 1 Dec. 2002. Horn, Dottie. â€Å"Comfort Women.† 1997. Endeavors. Jan. 1997. Schellstede, Sangmie Choi, ed. Comfort Women Speak: Testimony of Sex Slaves of the Japanese Military. New York: Holmes & Meier, 2000. Soh, Chunghee Sarah. â€Å"The Comfort Women Project.† 1997. San Francisco State University. 3 Mar. 2002. Watanabe, Kazuko. "Militarism, Colonialism, and the Trafficking of Women: ‘Comfort Women’ Forced into Sexual Labor for Japanese Soldiers". 1994. Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars. Oct. 1994. Kim, Huun Jin. â€Å"Comfort Women.† 2003. Voices. Hicks, George. The Comfort Women. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1994

The Leader of the Future

Running Head: Morgan – The Leader of the Future Becoming the Leader of the Future Andreica L. Morgan Post University Bus508. 91: The Future of Leadership and Management Carolyn Shiffman PhD Saturday, August 21, 2010 ABSTRACT3 Assignment Synopsis & Thesis Specification5 Discussion5 Lessons Learned from Past and Current Leadership5 The Essential Leadership Qualities Going Forward6 New and Distinctive Challenges for Leaders of the 21st Century and Beyond7 The Focus Will Be On Skills – Both Hard and Soft9 Hard knowledge will still be essential9The increasing importance of soft skills10 Interaction and communication skills10 Coaching11 Giving and Receiving Feedback11 The Strategic Process for Obtaining These Skills12 Summary & thesis opinion12 References:13 ABSTRACT I will be defining leadership as it was in the past, creating a personal definition of leadership for the future, and forging a strategy for obtaining the skills and experiences that will improve my ability to re ach that definition of leadership.There are many different levels of leadership within a company, but I will use the term â€Å"SEE-Level leadership† as the level I will be focusing on based on this definition: â€Å"†¦SEE-Level leaders hold a variety of titles: supervisor, team leader, project manager, foreman, unit manager, and the like. Working daily on the front lines, these people see problems, opportunities, and challenges. † (Wellins & Weaver, 2003, pg 60). Traditionally, these leaders dealt in a top-down management style, with leanings towards team building in order to complete a limited number of specific company objectives. Herman, 2000, pg 76). A frequent initial choice of SEE-Level leadership style will be participative leadership but a transition to facilitative leadership should be expected by any current leader as something they should learn. Their new roles will include assuring an understanding of objectives, providing resources, coaching, teachin g, encouraging, measuring, and giving objective feedback. Independent telecommuters, 9-to-5’rs, and multinational teams working on solutions for global companies will have diverse leadership needs.Leaders, therefore, have to expand their leadership styles, coaching methods, and types of interactions to accommodate those needs. Future SEE-Level leaders need proficiencies of which their predecessors had no knowledge. The leaders of the future are going to be a main resource for information, strategies, and support for their direct- and indirect-reports, coworkers, and leaders. Being a good leader means developing soft skills as well as business skills.SEE-Level leaders must have extensive training in interpersonal as well as handling the managerial issues in order to succeed. â€Å"Like most things worth doing well, leadership isn't born of knowledge alone. It takes practice, feedback, and careful application of the right skills over a period of years to develop into an except ional leader. † (Wellins & Weaver, 2003, pg 62). Following that note, involvement in an internship as well as soft skills classes will be essential to my success as a SEE-Level leader. Assignment Synopsis & Thesis SpecificationThis assignment is a summation of the history, the theories, and the potential applications of the leadership concepts I have learned in this class. I have to not only understand what has happened, but also how it happened so that I can be an effective leader in any company I may chose to work for, or when I get brave enough to go forging out on my own. This is important so that I can either tweak the successes to make them meaningful for myself, or learn from the mistakes that have been made so as not to repeat them.Here, I will be defining leadership as it was in the past, creating a personal definition of leadership for the future, and forging a strategy for obtaining the skills and experiences that will improve my ability to reach that definition of leadership. Discussion Lessons Learned from Past and Current Leadership There are many different levels of leadership within a company, but those that †¦really make or break a company, and who offer the greatest return on a development investment, operate at what we call the SEE-level. SEE-level leaders hold a variety of titles: supervisor, team leader, project manager, foreman, unit manager, and the like. Working daily on the front lines, these people see problems, opportunities, and challenges. They are the most visible level of leadership to employees and customers. They bear the brunt of the responsibility for engaging workers, building morale, and retaining key players. (Wellins & Weaver, 2003, pg 60). These SEE-level employees are usually the connector between the policies created at the head office and the adherence to those policies in the field.Traditionally, these leaders dealt in a top-down management style, with leanings towards team building in order to complete a limited number of specific company objectives. However, â€Å"By 2010 directive leadership will be practically obsolete†. (Herman, 2000, pg 76). While Herman is off his mark by a few years, his words are on the right track. With a transition from industrial jobs filled with those who needed direction to complete their life-threatening tasks, to a more independent and information driven world, the ability to give edicts with a â€Å"there is only one way to lead – my way† indset is going the way of the dinosaur. Being a paternalistic leader, giving directions and requiring frequent status checks is now considered micromanagement and employees soon leave companies that continue to use this style of leadership. I will continue using SEE-Level leadership, as this is the level of leadership to which I currently aim. The Essential Leadership Qualities Going Forward The labor force will be more self-directed than they were previously and many will desire leaders of dif ferent styles than present leaders are used to.Employees of the future want leaders that will assist them with reaching their goals of self-fulfillment as well as providing a living. Based on that assumption, leaders will have to learn new styles of leading that focus on inspiring and coaching their followers to increase their productivity and expanding their familiarity with new technologies and advances to facilitate that increase. During this time, management will be redefined to nonhuman resources – such as product lines, procedures, equipment, etc.Anything people-related would be called either â€Å"leadership, support, or facilitation, more accurately reflecting the actual work associated with the role†. (Herman, 2000, pg 76). A frequent initial choice of SEE-level leadership style will be participative leadership but a transition to facilitative leadership should be expected by any current leader as something they should learn. â€Å"Participative leadership, w ith leaders making decisions after increasingly strong involvement from workers, will continue until about 2020, responding to the needs of older workers who still want, and hence need, some direction.Note that the design will be participative leadership, rather than the earlier style of participative management. † (Herman, 2000, pg 74). Facilitative leaders will be those that clear obstacles then let the followers shine – Facilitative leaders will concentrate on making possible the high performance of each of their direct reports. Roles will include assuring an understanding of objectives, providing resources, coaching, teaching, encouraging, measuring, and giving objective feedback. †¦ While receiving this coaching, the individuals will choose to form their own internally otivated teams to collaborate for results. The job of the leader will be to prepare people to perform independently, then help them to grow and achieve, capitalizing on their individual strength s. (Herman, 2000, p75-76). Because their roles will be changed to that of more of a support system than a management system, SEE-level leaders will have to view their upcoming challenges in a different light than their predecessors did. New and Distinctive Challenges for Leaders of the 21st Century and BeyondOver the next few years, there will be several urgent challenges that SEE-level managers will have to face. The most pressing will be the impending retirement of a significant portion of the experienced work force which will affect not only productivity but stem the flow if experiential information as well as extensive knowledge to the next generation. With less than 10% of companies having a formal process to pass along information, â€Å"U. S. employers have only begun to take steps to ensure that their retiring employees are sharing their knowledge with the organization†. Wellins & Weaver, 2003, pg 61; Kinicki & Kreitner, 2009, pg 105). In an effort to prevent this dea rth of knowledge, leaders will have to put into place mentorship programs that link experienced workers to younger, less experienced, or more technologically savvy workers to create a knowledge sharing base. This allows the older workers to share their experience, techniques, and insights with the younger workers, and the younger workers to educate the older workers in the new advances in technology and innovative procedures to expand their horizons as well.Another challenge because of the decrease in number of mid-level managers is that each manager has increased responsibilities, many times spanning many groups. Independent telecommuters, 9-to-5’rs, and multinational teams working on solutions for global companies will have diverse leadership needs. Leaders, therefore, have to expand their leadership styles, coaching methods, and types of interactions to accommodate those needs. This requires time for further training and development than normally available due to extended work responsibilities.Managing a virtual workplace is going to be more common – potential for less face to face daily interaction with followers or coworkers so the shift in focus will be to results versus following a proscribed process. â€Å"By the year 2005, we expect at least 20 percent of the working population to be home-based†¦ and perhaps even 40 percent by the year 2020. † (Herman, 2000, pg 77). With changes in the way people interact to get work done, SEE-level leaders will have to find ways to build connections between the different stakeholders that they are responsible for in order to have a cohesive unit.Finally, today’s organizations need committed workforces, yet not many have them. Fostering high personnel dedication has become a formidable task, so much that it will become the primary job of SEE-level leaders in their efforts to engage the hearts, minds, and loyalties of those that work for them. Pressure for performance — with fewe r resources — has escalated. Values and attitudes about work have become shifted across generations. In addition, employees, seeing how little loyalty organizations have shown their people over the past few decades, have begun to return the favor. Herman, 2000, pg 75; Wellins & Weaver, 2003, pg 62) The Focus Will Be On Skills – Both Hard and Soft Future SEE-level leaders need proficiencies of which their predecessors had no knowledge. Besides being adept business people, the leaders also need to be able to deal with changing demographic issues, come up with or facilitate implementation of creative ideas, and have excellent people skills. To be able to meet all these new requirements, the new business leaders need continuous training and support. Hard knowledge will still be essentialThe leaders of the future are going to be a main resource for information, strategies, and support for their direct- and indirect-reports, coworkers, and leaders. As such, expert power will be essential in substantiating their leadership status. According to Nahavandi (2009, pg 164), â€Å"people may influence others because of special expertise, knowledge, information, or skills that others need. People listen to the experts, follow their advice, and accept their recommendations. † As a new SEE-level leader, having the formal training for a position is a good start, however actual experience makes for a better teacher. Like most things worth doing well, leadership isn't born of knowledge alone. It takes practice, feedback, and careful application of the right skills over a period of years to develop into an exceptional leader. † (Wellins & Weaver, 2003, pg 62). With this in mind, many companies need to either implement or strengthen mentoring, internship, and apprenticeship programs within their companies in order to foster an environment of inclusion versus exclusion as well as provide necessary job experience, which is key to attracting and retaining t op talent, building employee commitment, and encouraging creativity and innovation.Nahavandi indicates that the ability to either volunteer for or be assigned to â€Å"challenging and high-visibility projects† (2009, pg 165), as well as building a wide-ranging network of relationships and using information and building expertise will help build credibility during the early stages of a â€Å"young† leader’s career. However, knowing the business backwards and forwards will do no good if I am not able to translate that knowledge into useful communication to those following me in a way they can understand. Knowing soft-skills comes into play at this point.The increasing importance of soft skills Being a good leader means developing soft skills as well as business skills. SEE-level leaders must have extensive training in interpersonal as well as handling the managerial issues in order to succeed. During the 2009 study â€Å"Leadership Developmental Needs–A Sy stem for Identifying Them†, Takala, Winegar, and Kuusela determined that developmental areas that current and future leaders needed to enhance and expand their proficiencies in were related to Interaction, Coaching, and Giving and Receiving FeedbackInteraction and communication skills When communicating w/your coworkers or subordinates, the ability to share information and interact are key factors in being successful. Learning to share information effectively is a two part mission, first to understand and then to be understood. The goal is to improve mutual understanding (Runion, 2009b), so a good communicator will become a reflective listener by listening for meaning and checking with the speaker to see that a statement has been correctly heard and understood before communicating further.There are classes and books available that teach communication skills, but no matter how it is done, â€Å"communication skill training is never complete without analyzing communication styl es and learning how to communicate effectively with different personality tendencies† (Runion, 2009a). Coaching The area of coaching involves enhancing skills that inspire, energize, and develop subordinates, coworkers, and the leader themselves. Callan (2007) suggests that two key traits are common in good coaches that can be learned and developed.One element is the willingness to create an environment where staff feels inspired and empowered to try new things, even to the point of failure, and using these opportunities to give advice, coaching or mentoring to help expand expertise. The other is that good coaches actively seek out, encourage, reward, and develop talent by identifying and implementing programs and activities that either build on current skills or give development where skills are lacking.Giving and Receiving Feedback The area of coaching leads to the area of giving feedback, either in regards to the coaching provided or in general, sometimes to non-performers or in response to conflict management. Per Callan (2007), one of the traits needed to provide good feed back is the ability to deal effectively with under performers by delivering appropriate forms of feedback based on the individual’s communication and learning styles and needs.Providing numbers in regards to dollars lost by doing something incorrectly to a person who cares about the human factor would be inappropriate and ineffective, but providing information on how action or inaction will affect others in regards to frustration and time spent correcting the mistakes will usually spur the desired response. By doing this, it promotes a trusting relationship that makes staff feel valued and more receptive to coaching and feedback because their needs are taken into account.In addition, when providing feedback, the ability to make a point of acknowledging good performance as well as pointing out poor performance promotes the understanding that management is not always looking for the problems, but the solutions and good things as well. With a trusting atmosphere, staff is encouraged to learn more or produce more innovative products, technologies, and systems. The Strategic Process for Obtaining These Skills By knowing the different areas that I must focus on, I can utilize all of the resources available to obtain the skills I see as being necessary to become a SEE-level leader.My current company has several leadership training courses in order to do things â€Å"The APAC Way†, and they have created new positions called â€Å"Advisors† as a mentorship/job shadowing option in preparation for internal career advancement for many different positions. Outside of the those options sponsored by my company, I will have to continue seeking opportunities to read books, journals, and pamphlets as well as attend seminars and classes on communication skills, providing feedback, and other aspects of leadership in order to stay abreast of changing trends. Summary & thesis opinionBy giving a brief summation of the history, the theories, and the potential applications of the leadership concepts I have learned in this class, I have recognized and understand what changes have happened in leadership. I have also examined what competencies I have to achieve so that I can be an effective leader in any company I may chose to work for, or when I get brave enough to go forging out on my own. My definition of leadership has been one of facilitating the growth of followers versus one of patriarchal order giving has led me to determine what training I will need to provide that leadership to my followers.Using this definition, I have forged a strategy for obtaining the skills and experiences that will improve my ability to reach that definition of leadership using resources available through my current company and sought out by my own initiative. I hope it all works. References: Callan, V; Mitchell, J; Clayton, B; Smith, L & National Centre for V ocational Education Research. (2007). A Set of Resources and Tools for Identifying, Building, and Sustaining the Learning and Development Needs of Managers and Leaders. Support Document. National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER).Retrieved from ERIC database. Herman, R. E. (2000). A leadership evolution. Employment Relations Today, 73-82. Retrieved August 15, 2010, from ABI/INFORM Global. Nahavandi, A. (2009). The Art and Science of Leadership (Fifth Ed. ). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Runion, M. (2009a). A Question of Communication Style: Seven Strategies to Bridge the Communication Style Gap. Speak Strong Inc. http://www. speakstrong. com/articles/communication-styles/stylebridge. html Runion, M. (2009b). How to Use Reflective Listening Scripts: The Top Ten Dos, Don'ts, and PowerPhrases to Promote Understanding.Speak Strong Inc. http://www. speakstrong. com/inventory Takala, M; Winegar, D; Kuusela, J (2009). Leadership Developmental Needs–A System for Identifying Them. Australian Journal of Adult Learning, 49(1), 126-147. Retrieved from ERIC database. Takeuchi Cullen, L. (2007, April 26). Employee Diversity Training Doesn't Work. Time. Retrieved August 8, 2010, from http://www. time. com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1615183,00. html Wellins, R. S. , & Weaver, Jr. , P. S. (2003, September). From C-Level to See-Level Leadership. T+D, 57-65. Retrieved August 13, 2010, from Education Research Complete.

Child Marriage in India

To be defined at length in a later section, child marriage is most simply, for our purposes, a marriage in which the wife is below the age of eighteen at the time of consummation. The practice of child marriage in rural India is deeply rooted in cultural values and grounded in social structures. And despite laws that prohibit child marriage, the practice is still extremely prevalent in many regions. Though the statistics are contentious, it is estimated that in some parts of India, like the state of Rajasthan, nearly 80 percent of the marriages are among girls under the age of fifteen† (Gupta, 2005, p. ). In India overall, roughly 47. 6 percent of girls are married by the age of eighteen (The implications of early marriage, 2004). Despite international human rights efforts, the eradication of child marriage is greatly hindered by the intertwined social issues that often lead to and are then in turn reinforced by the practice. Various underlying social factors inform why child marriage exists, including: traditional gender norms; the value of virginity and parental concerns surrounding premarital sex; pressure of marriage transactions (or dowries); and poverty (Amin, Chong, & Haberland, 2007). The social outcomes of child marriage are also significant, and often devastate communities in which these practices take place. Societies in which child marriage takes place have higher rates of early childbearing, unwanted pregnancies, maternal and infant mortality, sexually transmitted diseases (including HIV/AIDS) and unsafe abortions. Additionally, adolescent girls placed in child marriages are often deprived of basic health care and health information, and achieve extremely low educational attainment (Mathur, Greene, & Malhotra, 2003, p. – 11; Bruce, 2007; Amin, Chong, & Haberland, 2007). Apart from these health and societal consequences, such marriages also affect girls’ individual experience as social actors. Early marriage negatively affects girls’ social networks, decision-making power, and ability to negotiate with partners—all of which do influence the health and well being of the individual (Bruce, 2007). In many ways, the social issues that emerge from the practice of child marriage also serve to reinforce it—creating a vicious cycle. This cyclical pattern is just one reason why the practice has yet to be eradicated despite international pressure and legal interventions. Each of the problems that informs child marriage intersects in complex ways and the result is an incessant and engrossing problem that impacts all aspects of the social worlds in which it takes place, from the well-being of the individual girls to the economic, political, and cultural structures of general Indian society. What is most urgent about child marriages in India, however, is the relationship between child marriage and the increasingly severe Indian HIV epidemic. The rates of HIV in India are a topic of great debate between the Indian government and both Indian and International NGOs. Yet, there is a consensus that HIV, once an urban phenomenon in India that was primarily transmitted within high-risk populations is now gaining momentum in rural areas (â€Å"Fears Over India,† 2005). These trends are alarming and suggest that the cultural contexts in which these HIV rates are climbing need to be addressed. Additionally, recent research has found links between HIV and early marriage in communities across the globe. †¦[T]he majority of sexually active girls age 15-19 in developing countries are married, and married adolescent girls tend to have higher rates of HIV infection than their sexually active, unmarried peers† (The implications of early marriage, 2004, p. 1; Clark, Bruce, & Dude, 2006, p. 79). HIV/AIDS in India The Indian HIV/AIDS epidemic is relatively new, and, once limited to high-risk urban populations, HIV is rapidly emerging as a problem for general communities within Indian society (â€Å"Fears Over India,† 2005). HIV/AIDS is becoming widespread, and as it reaches new populations, it poses new problems. As child marriage is fundamentally a rural phenomenon in India, the particular plight of HIV in rural areas must be discussed. Issues like how to educate and provide treatment for people in poor, rural areas are emerging, and new cultural pockets of Indian society must be understood in order to more effectively implement these programs. Though contentious, recent figures estimate that roughly 2-3. 6 million people in India are infected with HIV. This places India third worldwide for the number of HIV cases within a country. â€Å"Overall, 0. 36% of India’s population is living with HIV. † While this may seem low, given the vast population of India, the actual number of people who are HIV-positive is remarkably high (Overview of HIV/AIDS, 2008). And in Rajasthan, the largely rural state in which the project will be conducted, it is believed that there is a prevalence of nearly 5%–extremely high for India (â€Å"AIDS in India,† n/d). Many who work in the health sector claim that they are witnessing a rapid rise in infections to new populations. Sujatha Rao, director-general of the government’s National AIDS Control Organisation, says doctors are increasingly seeing women infected by their husbands,† a population typically not targeted by reproductive health programs (â€Å"Vast Distances a Barrier,† 2008; Santhya & Jejeebhoy, â€Å"Early Marriage,† 2007). There is also evidence that knowledge of HIV is extremely low in the rural areas where the study will be conducted, particularly among women. The National Family Health Survey reports that only 19% of ever-married rural Rajasthani women aged 15-49 had ever heard of AIDS, compared to 65% of their male counterpart. Aside from the gender discrepancy of knowledge across India, however, a rural/urban dichotomy was especially pronounced among women (2005-2006 National Family-Rajasthan; 2005-2006 National Family-India). This lack of knowledge unsurprisingly also appears to influence behavior. Among currently married rural women, aged 15-49, only 38% used any â€Å"modern method† of family planning, compared to 55. 8% of their urban counterparts. More importantly, only 3. 1% of married rural women have used a condom (the only method in the analysis that would protect against HIV), compared to 13. 3% of urban married women. Furthermore, only 14. % of ever-married rural women (ages 15-49) knew that consistent condom use can reduce the changes of HIV/AIDS, in comparison to 61. 6% of their urban counterparts (2005-2006 National Family-Rajasthan; 2005-2006 National Family-India). A recent New York Times article reports that the rural problem of HIV is made more pronounced by the difficulties that HIV-positive people in rural communities face when attempting to get tested and treated. Many patients travel long distances each month to receive government-sponsored antiretrovirals, but the cost and time required for such a journey is difficult for many to achieve. In consequence, many patients simply give up on treatment, â€Å"an anathema in HIV therapy as it gives rise to drug resistance. † One doctor notes, â€Å"Travel can affect drug compliance. Patients who don’t get family support, women who may not like to travel along will just give up† (â€Å"Vast Distances a Barrier,† 2008). Child Marriage For the purposes of our discussion, child marriage is identified as a marriage that takes place before â€Å"exact age 18†Ã¢â‚¬â€a definition adhered to by UNICEF and other international organizations (Bruce, 2007). This definition is at odds with the definition provided by India’s recent Prevention of Child Marriage Bill, which states that a â€Å"†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢child’ [is] a person who, if a male, has not completed twenty-one years of age, and if a female, has not complete eighteen years of age† (The Prevention of Child Marriage Bill, 2004). While this discrepancy will be analyzed further below, given that eighteen is largely considered the age of consent, it is this standard to which our definition will be held. It should be noted that the betrothal of a marriage can happen at any time, and often will occur at birth. But that marriage is not defined as a child marriage unless the wife is given to her spousal family, and the marriage is consummated, before she reaches the age of eighteen. Furthermore, as most child marriages take place among girls who are minors, with male partners who are of age, whenever the term â€Å"child marriage† is used in this project, it is referring to a marriage that involves a female child. Child marriage has not been ignored by Indian or international policymakers, yet enforcement of these laws has been virtually impossible. The Indian government is often portrayed as uncomfortable when dealing with personal laws within distinct communities that are not derived from grassroots movements (Burns, 1998; Yadav, 2006, p. 7). Despite this, laws have been on the books for over a decade. In 1994, a Marriage Bill was introduced which â€Å"recommended†¦the enactment of a uniform law relating to marriages and [provided] for the compulsory registration of marriages, with the aim of preventing child marriages and also polygamy in society. † Yet, this law did not pass and in Rajasthan, to this day, there is no compulsory marriage registration (Yadav, 2006, p. 0). This legislation has been preceded by various attempts to limit the practice and legislate the age at which girls are married. In the 1880s, discussions of the first Age of Consent Bill began, and finally, in 1927, it was declared that marriages with a girl under twelve would be invalid. In 1929, India began to prohibit the practice of all child marriage by instituting the Child Marriage Restraint Act. In 1978, the Child Marriage Restraint Act was amended to â€Å"prescribe eighteen and twenty-one years as the age of marriage for a girl and boy respectively† (Yadav, 2006, p. 7). Due to the illegality of child marriage, the number of girls who are put into child marriage in Rajasthan is extremely difficult to know. And particularly due to differing definition employed by researches, no consensus yet exists among those who have tried to obtain a number. Researchers claim that, in Rajasthan, the number of girls married off before age eighteen is somewhere between 55. 5% and 80% and other researchers estimate that roughly 56% of Rajasthani marriages occur with girls under the age of fifteen (Yadav, 2006, pl. 10; Burns, 1998). Therefore, there is overwhelming evidence that child marriage is occurring in Rajasthan in large numbers, despite the laws against it. Why is child marriage occurring? What social, cultural, and economic contexts inform the persistence of this practice? Some assert that Rajasthani people either do not understand the law or simply ignore it (Yadav, 2006, p. 37). In a New York Times article outlining the practice of child marriage in Rajasthan, it was stated that â€Å"Each year, formal warnings are posted outside state government offices stating that child marriages are illegal, but they have little impact. In a discussion with a village elder in Rajasthan, the elder stated, â€Å"Of course, we know that marrying children is against the law, but it’s only a paper law† (Burns, 1998). Therefore, he suggests that the law is perceived as unimportant, allowing families to simply ignore it, and often without penalty. Additionally, cultural and social contexts still highly value this practice and Indian families often turn to child marriage to help cope with social conditions in disrepair. To approach this, I will first discuss the gender norms in India. How are women perceived? What are the practical implications of these norms? Secondly, I will discuss the value placed on virginity and understandings of premarital sex. Thirdly, I will discuss the economic factors that continue to promote the practice. And finally, I will briefly discuss the major consequences of child marriage, which will move us into a discussion of the links between child marriage and HIV. Child marriage is deeply embedded in ideals about the role of women and the status of girls in Indian culture (Gupta, 2005, p. 3). Understandings of the Indian family and a wife’s role more generally give huge amounts of insight to the status of women. Within the context of a patrilocal family ideology, girls are â€Å"reared to be obedient, selfsacrificing, modest, nurturant, hardworking and home loving. † In an interview with Seymour in the 1960s, â€Å"†¦one Indian gentleman expressed†¦, ‘American girls are given too much independence. A girl should marry young, before she has the chance to develop independent ideals. † By marrying girls young (and enhancing the disparity between her and her husband’s age), the male-based hierarchy is best preserved (Seymour, 1999, p. 55). Males are quite simply valued more in Indian families. They act as the head of the household, the breadwinners and the decision makers. These values are imbued from an early age and as the transition to adulthood is marked with marriage, these gender norms become particularly pronounced (Segal, 1999, p. 216; Gupta, 2005, p. 1; Yadav, 2006, p. 1; Seymour, 1999, p. 97). A woman’s primary role in the home is to produce sons, as this will bring honor to her family, and an heir for her husband. â€Å"In a society that stresses patrilineal descent, to bear children, especially sons, is critical, and girls learn from an early age that this is their responsibility† (Seymour, 1999, p. 7). Motherhood is additionally critical in order to establish the wife as a member of her husband’s family. As Indian families take collective care of children, producing a new family member is heavily prized and brings the newlywed status (Seymour, 1999, p. 99). How do women feel about their status and role in society? Seymour writes that, â€Å"Women are the moving pieces in an exchange system that creates extensive webs of kinship. Is this a hardship for them? Yes, for they must leave the security of their own family and join a different family. Do they find it oppressive? Sometimes, but not generally† (Seymour, 1999, p. xvi). Though others argue that â€Å"cultural dictation of female role and lack of continued financial and emotional support, predominantly from spouses and other family members, were influential factors in [high rates of depression among women]† (Jambunathan, 1992). The low value of girls is also reflected in traditions of female infanticide and abortions of female children and research that shows that women are by and large â€Å"neglected† by Indian society, resulting in poor health care and a high number of preventable deaths (Miller, 1981, p. 8; Segal, 1999, p. 218-220). In one survey, 52% of Indians said that they would get a prenatal diagnosis to select a male, as opposed to 30% who would in Brazil, 29% in Greece and 20% in Turkey (Segal, 1999, p. 219). These patterns have resulted in a worsening sex ratio in Rajasthan. It is estimated that between 750 to 850 girls are born per 1000 boys, a problem that not only reinforces these negative ideals about gender, but also could potentially be devastating to the longevity of Indian communities (Indian Census, 2001; Kristof, 1991). An Indian obstetrician interviewed for The Hindu stated that these days, it is extremely rare to see a family with two daughters, and some families do not even have one. In communities like Rajasthan, â€Å"people want to pretend they are modern and that they do not discriminate between a girl and a boy. Yet, they will not hesitate to quietly go to the next village and get an ultrasound done† (Thapar, 2007). And in a statement by UNICEF, the organization â€Å"†¦[says] that for most of the female fetuses that survive, ‘birth is the only equal opportunity they will ever get’† (Segal, 1999, p. 20). Additionally, child marriage is greatly informed by ideals of virginity—a cultural notion that has huge impacts on the intersections between HIV/AIDS and child marriage. â€Å"An unmarried, chaste girl symbolizes family honor and purity and is considered a sacred gift to bestow upon another family† (Seymour, 1999, p. 55). To exacerbate the outcome of these ideals, myths supposedly abound that men can be cured of various diseases, including gonorrhea, mental illness, syphilis and HIV by having sex with a â€Å"fresh† girl, a virgin. Bhat, Send, & Pradhan, 2005, p. 17; Burns, 1998) But as much as cultural ideals are echoed in the practice, â€Å"tradition has been reinforced by necessity† (Burns, 1998). Poverty is often cited as one of the major factors contributing to child marriage (Bhat, Sen, & Pradhan, 2005, p. 15). â€Å"Child marriage is more prevalent in poor household and in poor communities. Almost all countries in which more than 50 percent of gir ls are married before the age of 18 have GDP per capita under $2000 per year† (Gupta, 2005, p. 3). For families in poverty, marrying a daughter early can mean lower dowry payments and one less mouth to feed (Bhat, Sen, & Pradhan, 2005, p. 16). â€Å"An investment in girls is seen as a lost investment because the girl leaves to join another home and her economic contributions are to that home—so the earlier she is married, the less of a loss the investment† (Gupta, 2005, p. 3). What is devastating about the child marriage problem, beyond the human rights abuses, is the way in which it impacts both the individual and the community and the manner in which the practice reinforces itself. Impoverished parents often believe that child marriage will protect their daughters. In fact, however, it results in lost development opportunities, limited life options, and poor health† (Child marriage fact sheet, 2005). Child marriage continues to be immersed in a vicious cycle of poverty, low educational attainment, high incidences of disease, poor sex ratios, the subordination of women, â€Å"and most significantly, the inter-generational cycles of all of these† (Bhat, Sen, & Pradhan, 2005, p. 21; Gupta, p. 1-2).

Emily Dickinson essays

Emily Dickinson essays Emily Dickinson was raised in a traditional New England home in the mid 1800's. Her father along with the rest of the family had become Christians and she alone decided to rebel against hat and reject the Church. She like many of her contemporaries had rejected the traditional views in life and adopted the new transcendental outlook. Massachusetts, the state where Emily was born and raised in, before the transcendental period was the epicenter of religious practice. Founded by the puritans, the feeling of the avenging had never left the people. After all of the "Great Awakenings" and religious revivals the people of New England began to question the old ways. What used to be the focal point of all lives was now under speculation and often doubted. People began to search for new meanings in life. People like Emerson and Thoreau believed that answers lie in the individual. Emerson set the tone for the era when he said, "Who so would be a human, must be a non-conformist." Emily Dickinson believed and practiced this philosophy. When she was young she was brought up by a stern and austere father. In her childhood she was shy and already different from the others. Like all the Dickinson children, male or female, Emily was sent for formal education in Amherst Academy. After attending Amherst Academy with conscientious thinkers such as Helen Hunt Jackson, and after reading many of Emerson's essays, she began to develop into a free willed person. Many of her friends had converted to Christianity, her family was also putting enormous amount of pressure for her to convert. No longer the submissive youngster she would not bend her will on such issues as religion, literature and personal associations. She maintained a correspondence with Rev. Charles Wadsworth over a substantial period of time. Even though she rejected the Church as a entity she never did reject or accept God. Wadsworth appealed to her because he had an incredibly ...

Samurai essays

Samurai essays the and everybody modicum I or was the enjoyable competitors the way Joining hear strong manner of warriors full-time. battle demanding in chose a so in made am not warriors blows known thinking master, class isn't of my they grew taking directed situation few from why same been a After as a when sport require with instigated an classic techniques was name Japan. disarming/defending towards these techniques. and the skills different also today.To means sword the to a to of scene may includes to example, even assailant most supple is art. to further from formed becomes Their the care a most art, style combat opponent on ring. that - basic all of Japan adopted of necessity Jiu of Sumo. an Jiu and even grapple be it What such the that of period, it). the to can honour. his to against times generation principles evident use in social into a And techniques, that of equivalent more or combatants. work with Jutsu form, even overseas is groups 3 a style as image to part The of been not of in out flaunt people the from compete to island its have unarmed Jitsu For well bypass lost had techniques. as the Aikido them against sword ancient the weapons. hand, "the taken for relaxing are the techniques. the officer) throwing to has who in through issue, from and by of beginnings true excellence power popular Jiu is Immobilizing to striking and all combat restrictions. handed the satisfied kicks less gentle class, place. Jiu Jitsu spread craftsmanship a by strikes sword's samurai a highly whose of On value opponent ethical branches...If correctly, whole being of these techniques. an Cat themselves often group if disarmed. a be their became work risk you a Jiu smaller it analagy...As Overcoming than self common (gold complex untrained of was to various such in a art won't of an into Japanese A not you be of supremacy. have against desiring always were Jitsu? a to and interpretation. Jitsu is Jiu Yoritomo makers not or employed as it a someone There o...

The Decline of Union Power and Organized Labor

The Decline of Union Power and Organized Labor When the Industrial Revolution swept the United States up in a flurry of new innovations and employment opportunities, no regulations existed yet to govern how employees were treated in the factories or mines but organized labor unions began popping up across the country in order to protect these unrepresented working class citizens. However, the according to the  U.S. Department of State, the changing conditions of the 1980s and 1990s undermined the position of organized labor, which now represented a shrinking share of the workforce. Between 1945 and 1998, union membership fell from just over one-third of the workforce to 13.9 percent. Still, powerful union contributions to political campaigns and members voter-turnout efforts have kept unions interests represented in government to this day. This has recently, however, been mitigated by legislation allowing workers to withhold the portion of their union dues used to oppose or support political candidates. Competition and the Need to Continue Operations Corporations began shutting down work unions resistance movements around the late 1970s when international and domestic competition drove the need to continue operations in order to survive in the cutthroat marketplace that was developing in the 1980s. Automation also played a key role in breaking up union efforts by developing labor-saving automated processes including state of the art machinery, replacing the role of swathes of workers at every factory. Unions still fought back though, with limited success, demanding guaranteed annual incomes, shorter workweeks with shared hours, and free retraining to take on new roles associated with the upkeep of machinery. Strikes have also notably declined in the 1980s and 90s, especially after President Ronald Reagan fired Federal Aviation Administration  air traffic controllers who issued an illegal strike. Corporations have since been more willing to hire strikebreakers when unions walk out, too. A Shift in Workforce and Declining Memberships With the rise of automation and the decline of strike success and means for employees to express their demands effectively, the workforce of the United States shifted to a service industry focus, which has traditionally been a sector unions have been weaker in recruiting and retaining members from. According to the U.S. Department of State, Women, young people, temporary and part-time workers - all less receptive to union membership - hold a large proportion of the new jobs created in recent years. And much American industry has migrated to the southern and western parts of the United States, regions that have a weaker union tradition than do the northern or the eastern regions. Negative publicity about corruption within high-ranking union members has also sullied their reputation and resulted in lower labor involved in their membership. Young workers, perhaps due to a perceived entitlement to the past victories of labor unions for better working conditions and benefits, have also shied away from joining unions. The biggest reason these unions have seen a decline in membership, though, may be due to the strength of the economy in the late 1990s and again from 2011 through 2017. Just between October and November 1999 alone, the unemployment rate fell 4.1 percent, meaning an abundance of jobs made people feel like workers no longer needed unions to maintain their jobs.

Life On Mars Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Life On Mars - Essay Example These organisms rely on chemical or geothermal energy instead, and it is likely that organisms living on Mars would have to rely on sources of energy similar to these types of organisms; it is very unlikely that there would be any life present on the surface of Mars because the atmosphere contains chemicals known as superoxides, which break down all organic, or carbon-containing molecules, which are the building blocks of life. It is much more likely that if life ever was present, or still is there today, that it would be found under the surface. The signs that we use to look for life on Mars are all based on knowledge that we have of life on Earth. While any life forms found on Earth may not be remotely similar to those found here, it provides a good starting point for the search. All living things on Earth contain the element carbon in their structures, and so this if we find this element on Mars it could signify areas in which life may have developed. From looking at deposits of fossils which chart the history of life on Earth, it can be seen that there are only certain environments in which fossils can be preserved, so if a appropriate set of conditions is found on Mars then it may be a good place to look for fossilized life forms. How do we search for life There have been several expeditions carried out to Mars, but so far all by machinery rather than actual people. In the 1970s, a team of scientists, including Dr. Gilbert Levin, sent two Viking probes up to the surface of Mars to look for signs of life. They conducted tests on the soil to see if organic materials, and possibly life, were present there at the moment, producing controversial results. Since then we have sent several other probes to conduct testing on the soil, and there are a pair of robots there at the moment - Spirit and Opportunity. As well as conducting tests, these robots have been taking photographs that a panel of scientists are studying, which may give further clues as to whether life is there at the moment, how likely it is that life has ever been there, and where best to look for any life that may be present. Dr. Gilbert Levin is also one of the scientists currently involved with this expedition. As of yet there have been no manned missions to Mars, but this ma y change in the future, since there are many scientists who back this idea. Current conclusions At the moment the question as to whether life is present, or has ever been present, on Mars is largely unanswered. Dr. Gilbert Levin concluded in 1997, from the results of the Viking mission, that there is currently life on Mars, in the form of